Brookhaven National Laboratory

By Daniel Dunaief

Monday, June 23, marked the beginning of a new and exciting frontier. Using the largest digital camera ever built for astronomy, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory shared its first images after a journey from conception to reality that lasted over two decades.

Located in the Cerro Pachón mountaintop in Chile because the area is dry, high and dark, the telescope and camera started its 10-year mission to share images of the sky.

Viewers at over 350 watch parties in the United States and around the world awaited these pictures, including with gatherings at Stony Brook University and Brookhaven National Laboratory.

The state-of-the-art camera did not disappoint.

The Rubin Observatory, which can take images with a field of view of the sky that are the equivalent of 40 moons, discovered 2,400 asteroids that no one has ever seen before. And that’s just the tip of the iceberg. By the time the Observatory has collected all the data the public can view, the camera is expected to find over five million asteroids.

“Most of the asteroids are too faint to have been found” with previous technology, said Paul O’Connor, senior physicist at Brookhaven National Laboratory who has been working on the camera since 2002.

Simon Birrer, Assistant Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Stony Brook University, attended a watch event at the university with some 50 to 60 other excited members of the college community.

“Knowing that the instrument is capable and what it was promised to do and seeing it all coming together, sharing the excitement with so many other people is very exciting,” said Birrer.

By looking at the night sky over the course of just a few days, the observatory was able to offer a time lapse view of the movement of these asteroids.

“You can look and see the trail of thousands of things that are completely new,” said Birrer.

Indeed, in addition to seeing asteroids and other objects both near and far, the Rubin Observatory can study dark matter and dark energy, map the Milky Way, and observe transient events.

“We’re entering a golden age of American science,” Harriet Kung, acting director of the DOE’s Office of Science, said in a statement. “NSF-DOE Rubin Observatory reflects what’s possible when the federal government backs world-class engineers and scientists with the tools to lead.”

The first images generated considerable excitement in the scientific community and on campuses around the world.

“It’s a new frontier for sure,” said O’Connor. “We’ve been working on this project for all these years. It was easy to get students interested.”

Anja von der Linden, Associate Professor in Physics and Astronomy at Stony Brook and a member of the LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration since its inception in 2012, viewed the images from Germany, where she is visiting her parents on vacation with her young daughter.

She works on clusters of galaxies and was delighted to see the Virgo cluster online.

“The image is so large and [viewers] can also see much more distant galaxies,” said von der Linden. Viewers are able to scroll around and zoom in and out to see details in these “beautiful images.”

Von der Linden echoed the sentiment from one of the officials who shared the first images, suggesting that the data and information from the observatory are available for astronomers and scientists, but also for the public, helping them explore the night sky.

“It’s quite remarkable,” she said. “I look forward to seeing how the public engages.”

The Rubin Observatory will see “everything that changes, explodes, and moves,” said von der Linden.

A little bit of pride

In addition to scientists like O’Connor and Anže Slosar, group leader of the Cosmology & Astrophysics Group, BNL recruited close to two dozen interns to help with the work.

“There’s a lot of inherent curiosity about the cosmos,” O’Connor said. “When people hear that they could participate in doing research that could lead to lead to a better understanding of it, we had to turn interns away.”

O’Connor worked with the charge-coupled device modules, which are the digital film of the camera. The Rubin Observatory, with its 3.2 gigapixel focal plane, relies on 189 custom-designed CCD sensors to achieve its resolution.

“I feel a little bit of pride,” said O’Connor, who didn’t expect to be working on astronomical instruments when he came to BNL. “I was a tiny, little part of a giant team that’s worked so long. When you see the final project, it’s a good feeling.”

Seeing the invisible

At the same time that the Rubin Observatory can find asteroids that had previously gone undetected, it can also help detect dark energy and dark matter.

Only five percent of the universe comes from visible matter, with about 70 percent coming from dark energy and 25 percent coming from dark matter.

Dark energy describes why the universe continues to expand after the Big Bang, rather than slowing down, the way a ball thrown into the air does before it falls, von der Linden explained. Researchers study dark matter, meanwhile, by observing the way light from distant galaxies bends when it travels towards Earth, as the gravitational force of the matter affects it on its path.

Von der Linden said she has already started using some of the commissioning data to test Rubin’s capabilities to do weak gravitational lensing. Weak gravitational lensing involves slight shifts in images caused by the gravitational influence of other matter that require many galaxies to detect.

“The work we’re doing now is very much a test case, which we will then take and apply to a much larger data set,” she said.

Inspiring future scientists

The images and the data, which the US, the UK and France will process, has the potential not only to answer scientific questions, but also to encourage and inspire future researchers.

The Rubin Observatory has a “very comprehensive education and public outreach component,” von der Linden said. “From the beginning, it has been built with the intention that the public is suppose to interact with the data and be part of the scientific story.”

If teachers use this in the classroom to show students the beautiful and intriguing night sky, “I would think this will lead some students to consider pursuing” careers in these sciences. “I hope that we’re going to get more junior scientists who will be part of Rubin.”

To see images from the observatory, visit https://rubinobservatory.org.

The annual Elementary Science Fair Competition hosted by the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory on June 7 showcased a range of hypotheses students set out to test by following the scientific method.

Students presented questions inspired by their everyday lives, their interests, and timely topics in science. This year’s project titles included, “Alexa, Do my Homework!” “Does Taylor Swift Help Make my Dog Less Anxious?” “How Does the Air Pressure of a Soccer Ball Affect how far it Travels When Kicked?” and “Words Matter: How Encouragement Affects Performance.”

Brookhaven Lab scientists and local teachers volunteered to judge 258 projects and award the top spots and honorable mentions for each grade level, from kindergarten to sixth grade. The competition also included a Judges’ Choice award for creative questions.

“Our Elementary Science Fair is all about celebrating students’ first steps in STEM and providing positive memories that will inspire them as they consider future career paths,” said Daniel Trieu, competition co-coordinator and educational programs representative with Brookhaven Lab’s Office of Workforce Development and Science Education (WDSE). WDSE provides educational opportunities that highlight the Lab’s research initiatives, preparing the next generation of scientists and engineers.

A number of projects pulled in family and friends, including four-legged ones. Kindergarten student Savanna Stidd of Riley Avenue Elementary School wondered, “Am I really my dog’s best friend?” and found that her pup named Penny ran to her the fastest when called over. Her favorite part of the process? “I got to play with my dog,” she said.

Some students combined science and art, exploring how different types of music play into plant growth, whether music affects the way we draw, and which conditions contribute to the perfect place to hang their paintings. Others asked questions about food, including a project that tested which substance best mummified apples — complete with a life-size display prop mummy — and another that investigated why a student’s favorite ice cream flavor, chocolate, melts quickly in the summer.

Overall, the Science Fair is a chance to highlight students’ curiosity about the scientific process.

“My favorite part about being at the Science Fair is looking at my Science Fair project and seeing how hard I worked for it,” said Elijah David, a third grader from Coram Elementary School who conducted an experiment to see which liquids dissolved different types of candy the fastest. 

Students who earned first place in their grade level received medals and ribbons, along with banners to hang at their school to recognize the achievement. All participants received a ribbon in recognition of having won their grade-level competition at their school. Brookhaven Lab and Teachers Federal Credit Union sponsored the competition.

Science Fair awards

The following students earned first place in their grade level: 

◆ Kindergartner Athena Corso, Lincoln  Avenue Elementary School in Sayville for  “Don’t Wake a Sleeping Baby.”

◆ First grader John Jantzen, Sunrise Drive Elementary School in Sayville for “Electromagnet Avenue.”

◆ Second grader Christopher Calvanese, Pines Elementary School in Smithtown for “Monkey Bars or Ouchy Scars: Which playground surface absorbs the most impact?” 

◆ Third grader Erios Pikramenos, Joseph A. Edgar Intermediate School in Rocky Point for “Lami vs. Eddy.”

◆ Fourth grader Lyla Drucker, Tamarac Elementary in Holtsville for “Upcycled Seed Paper.” 

◆ Fifth grader Taran Sathish Kumar, Pines Elementary School in Smithtown for “Waste to Blaze: Which Eco-Briquette Burns the Best.” 

◆ Sixth grader Luke Dinsman, Northport Middle School in Northport for “Defeating Drought: Can Hydrogels Help?” 

Judges’ choice

Kindergarten: Nate Doherty, Miller Avenue School in Shoreham

First Grade: Jack Gottesman, Tamarac Elementary School in Holtsville

Second Grade: Indie Crooke, Hampton Bays Elementary School in Hampton Bays

Third Grade: Colton Christian, Dayton Avenue School in Manorville

Fourth Grade: Mabel Gross, Dayton Avenue School in Manorville

Fifth Grade: Morgan Proscia, Sunrise Drive Elementary School in Sayville

Honorable mentions

Kindergarten: Arjun Yelika, Laurel Hill School in East Setauket; Savanna Stidd, Riley Avenue Elementary School in Calverton; and Peyton Lauten, Frank J. Carasiti Elementary in Rocky Point

First Grade: Grady McHugh, Pines Elementary School in Smithtown; and Cecilia Singh, Edna Louise Spear Elementary in Port Jefferson

Second Grade: Maggie Ruddick, Ridge Elementary School in Ridge; Rudhvin Maheshkumar, Bretton Woods Elementary School in Hauppauge; and Nathan Kenny, Hiawatha Elementary in Lake Ronkonkoma

Third Grade: Emilia Rutigliano, Tamarac Elementary in Holtsville; Adalynn Bishop, Raynor Country Day School in Speonk; George Miyagishi, Park View Elementary School in Kings Park; Christopher Powell, Fifth Avenue School in East Northport; and Siena Roseto, Cutchogue East Elementary School in Cutchogue.

Fourth Grade: Kate Unterstein, Cutchogue East Elementary School in Cutchogue; Myles Savage, RCK Elementary School in Islip Terrace; Lily Argyros, Bretton Woods Elementary School in Hauppauge; Vincent Calvanese, Pines Elementary School in Smithtown; and Ruby Tafflock, Ocean Avenue School in Northport. 

Fifth Grade: Sofia Balcells, Raynor Country Day School in Speonk; and Ashleigh Bruno, Northport Middle School in Northport.

Sixth Grade: William Zeiger, Peconic Community School in Cutchogue; and Colette Breig, William T. Rogers Middle School in Kings Park.

Science Fair Expo

While the project showcase was underway, science fair participants and their families also visited the Science Fair Expo, which featured information about Brookhaven Lab, science demonstrations, and hands-on activities related to physics, nanoscale science, and more.

Brookhaven National Laboratory is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy, the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States. For more info, visit science.energy.gov.

Angelika Drees at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Drees is pointing to the pipe that runs clockwise, while, on the other side of that pipe, is another one (marked in yellow tape) that runs counterclockwise. Photo by Daniel Dunaief

By Daniel Dunaief

Finely tuned accelerators, constructed underground in rings that are over 1.5 miles long, can reveal secrets about the smallest parts of matter. At the same time, the work researchers do, which involves accelerating electrons, ions and other sub atomic particles, operates at a level considerably smaller than a human hair, using sensitive equipment under tightly controlled, high energy conditions.

Indeed, at this scale, researchers need to account for energies and changes that wouldn’t affect most human activities, but that can have significant impacts on the work they are doing and the conclusions they draw.

Over the years, accelerator physicists have encountered a wide range of challenges and, for a time, unexplained phenomena.

Accelerator physicist Angelika Drees has worked at Brookhaven National Laboratory since 1997 and has experience and expertise with several accelerators. She is currently working on the Electron Ion Collider (EIC), a unique instrument that will explore quarks and gluons — particles inside the atomic nucleus — that will have applications in medicine, materials science, and energy.

Drees does luminosity calculations. She tries to ensure more collisions. At the same time, she seeks to protect the equipment while keeping the backgrounds as low as achievable.

Drees works with a loss monitor and is responsible for that system, which includes over 400 monitors. The majority of these are installed between two beam pipes.

Lost signal

Drees has worked since 1997 at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), which is in its last experimental runs before it provides some of the materials for the new EIC.

As an accelerator, the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider has beam position monitors that are comprised of two opposing striplines inside the beam pipe that measure the position of the beam. These striplines, which are on either side of the beam, look at the difference in induced signal amplitude. Equal amplitude, with a difference of zero, implies that the beam is in the center.

While the engineers knew that the material for the cables, which transmit signals from the beam position monitor to the system that sees its location, would shrink when exposed to temperatures of 4 degrees Kelvin, they hadn’t adjusted the design to prepare for the change.

When the electronics shrunk after being exposed to temperatures close to absolute zero, which help make the magnets superconducting, they pulled themselves out of their power source.

“We could not see the position of the beam,” Drees explained. “This was during the so-called sextant test, and the beam was not (yet) circling.”

The magnets operated independent of the beam position monitors.

For about a year they could see the beamline 20 meters downstream. Before Drees arrived, the team updated the cables, putting kinks that allowed them to shrink without interfering with their operation of pulling themselves out of the power source.

“It was repaired and, ever since, there has been no further issue,” she said.

‘Weird variation’

Before she arrived at BNL, Drees conducted her PhD work at the Large Electron-Positron Collider, or LEP, which has now become the site of the Large Hadron Collider in Geneva, Switzerland.

The LEP was 27 kilometers long and was between 30 meters and 160 meters underground. It stretched below France and Switzerland. Some part of it was in soil that is affected by Lake Geneva. Half of the LEP was embedded below the Jura bedrock and the other half was embedded in softer sedimentary deposits close to the lake.

Scientists saw regular variation in their results, with a peak to peak beam energy of about 250 parts per million. By studying the timing of these peaks to a regular 28-day and daily cycle, they connected it to the moon.

“The moon not only affects Earth’s oceans, but the actual crust and thus the LEP ring inside it,” Drees explained.

The moon wasn’t the only outside influence on the LEP. Rainwater penetrated the tunnel.

The magnet yokes had concrete between metal laminations. The concrete absorbed the humidity and expanded, increasing pressure on the metal laminations.

That changed the magnetic permeability and the transfer function, which indicates how much bending magnetic field researchers get out of a magnet with a specific electric current.

Rain took about two weeks to show up in the data, as the water took that long to reach and alter the concrete.

During her PhD on the LEP beam energy measurement and calibration, Drees searched for environment effects as a part of her thesis.

While others discovered the moon tides before she arrived, she and other researchers couldn’t account for a ground current that was penetrating into the equipment.

Acting like an extra and inexplicable power source, this current changed the magnetic field.

The extra energy invalidated earlier results. The error bar was four times larger than they originally thought, causing the LEP working group to withdraw a paper and commit to redoing the analysis.

The energy disappeared from midnight to 4 am. Back then, researchers at the LEP were so eager for an explanation that they posted a message on a TV screen, offering an award, like a bottle of champagne, to anyone who could explain what was happening.

Suspecting planes might be contributing, Drees sent a student to the airport to monitor flights. The police, however, weren’t too pleased with this data gathering, initially questioning, then sending the student away.

Drees met with the power authority, who had measured ground currents in the area for years that stopped during those same post midnight hours.

That provided the necessary clue, as the trains — and, in particular the French ones — had contributed this unexplained energy.

Unlike the Swiss trains, which operate with alternating current, the French trains use direct current, which had affected their experiments.

Looking forward

Angelika Drees on her horse Pino.

Originally from Wuppertal, Germany, Drees balances the mentally demanding and inspirational challenges of working at these colliders with manual labor.

She earned money during her undergraduate and graduate school days by shoeing horses.

Drees currently owns a horse and works regularly on a horse farm, throwing hay bales and repairing fences.

“I like physical labor,” she said.

Several years ago, she traveled to Portugal, where she stopped at a farm with a Lusitano stallion. The horse had a loose shoe. While she couldn’t speak Portuguese with the person leading the stallion, who, as it turned out, was the national riding coach, she let him know that she could help.

After she repaired the shoe, he asked if she wanted to ride. She found riding this stallion in the back woods of Portugal “amazing.”

“Very brainy work and very physical work balances each other well,’ she said.

As for the colliders, Drees is looking forward to the construction of the EIC, even as she has bittersweet sentiments about RHIC closing down.

Ultimately, building the EIC presents challenges that she is eager to face.

Esther Takeuchi. Photo by Roger Stoutenburgh/Brookhaven National Laboratory

By Daniel Dunaief

Daniel Dunaief

Esther Takeuchi has won numerous awards and received plenty of honors for her work. 

In 2009, President Barack Obama presented her with a National Medal of Technology and Innovation, the highest honor possible for technological achievement in the country.

She has also been elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,  received the 2013 E.V. Murphree Award in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry from the American Chemical Society and was selected as a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, among others.

Takeuchi, who has over 150 patents to her name and is Distinguished Professor in Materials Science and Chemical Engineering at Stony Brook University and Chair of the Interdisciplinary Science Department at Brookhaven National Laboratory, spoke with Times Beacon Record News Media about a range of topics.

“In the long run, I think energy storage can significantly improve energy availability and affordability,” said Takeuchi. “We end up throwing a lot of [energy] away.”

Indeed, in a widely cited statistic based on a 2021 study, 65 percent of energy produced is thrown away. Energy from any source, whether it’s fossil fuels, sunlight, wind or nuclear, is inefficient, with losses from heat, limitations on technology, friction with machinery and incomplete combustion, among a host of factors.

“Let’s use it more effectively, where we can follow the load,” urged Takeuchi.

At the same time, Takeuchi recognizes the importance of ensuring the safety of energy storage, including for the proposed storage facilities in Setauket.

“The Fire Department and police need to be brought into the discussion,” she said. “A lot of these folks are extremely knowledgeable.”

Community education, involvement and awareness is necessary for any such project, ensuring that the appropriate people are informed and know how to respond to any crisis.

Energy needs

Future energy needs are considerably higher than they are today, thanks to the demands of artificial intelligence.

Large data centers that house the kinds of information necessary for AI are “incredibly power hungry,” Takeuchi said. If AI continues to expand at the current pace, it alone will use more energy than the world makes today.

“We need to have broader sources of energy” so it is available, she added. “Where is going to come from?”

Indeed, Takeuchi and her collaborators are working on energy storage that doesn’t use the kind of lithium-ion batteries that power much of consumer electronics. Lithium ion batteries are compact and are highly reactive, packing energy into a small volume. If something goes wrong, these batteries are flammable.

“We are working on a project at Stony Brook and Brookhaven National Laboratory where we’ve demonstrated electrolytes that don’t burn at all,” she said. “You can put a butane lighter on them and they won’t burn.”

To be sure, these batteries, which would be larger than the current systems, are a “long way” from commercialization, but it’s possible.

Still, Takeuchi is excited about rechargeable water-based batteries. She’s focused on making sure the materials are elements that are used broadly, instead of exotic materials mined in only one place on Earth. She’s also looking to create a cycle life that’s as high as possible.

Aqueous materials have a lower cycle life. She and her team are trying to understand why and overcome those challenges, which would enable these batteries to be recharged more times before degrading.

Funding environment

The current funding environment for science and technology has reached an uncertain time, Takeuchi said.

“One of the ways the United States has been so effective at competing economically on a global level is through science and technology,” she said. During many decades, the country has been an innovation leader as measured by the number of patents issued.

Driven by the Manhattan Project that built the atomic bomb, by frenzied competition with the Soviet Union after the launch of Sputnik in October of 1957 amid the Cold War, and by the drive to send people to the moon in the 1960’s, the country has attracted top talent from around the world while making important discoveries and creating new technology. Realizing that science and technology is a driver of future commercial and economic growth, other countries have been actively recruiting scientists concerned about the future funding landscape to their countries. This creates the potential for a brain drain.

If the United States gives up its leadership position when other nations are charging ahead, it could take a long time to recover the current standing, not to mention to mirror the successes and personal and professional opportunities from previous generations, said Takeuchi.

“Science is critical to lead us to the future we all want to live in,” she added. 

Paul O'Connor. Photo by Roger Stoutenburgh/ BNL

By Daniel Dunaief

The Earth is way too noisy.

The far side of the moon, however, can act like enormous noise cancellation headphones, serving as a barrier to the kinds of signals from sources including Earth’s ionosphere, which carries electromagnetic noises from lightning, solar flares, radio signals, among others to look or, perhaps more appropriately, listen deep into the past.

On Wednesday, May 7, at Napper Tandy’s in Smithtown, three Brookhaven National Laboratory scientists will speak with the public about an unnamed mission expected to take off next year. The free event is part of BNL’s PubSci science café series (www.bnl.gov/pubsci/).

Paul O’Connor. Photo by Roger Stoutenburgh/ BNL

Senior Scientist Paul O’Connor, Mechanical Engineer Connie-Rose Deane and Physicist Anže Slosar will discuss a project called LuSEE-Night, which, like so many other efforts at BNL, is an acronym. LuSEE stands for Lunar Surface Electromagnetic Experiment-Night.

The Department of Energy project manager is Sven Hermann at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Slosar is the science lead, while O’Connor coordinated technical and systems aspects of the instrument development.

The scientists collaborated with researchers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Energy and included scientists at the University of Minnesota and at the University of California, Berkeley.

The Space Science Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley is leading the project. BNL is a collaborating member responsible for delivering hardware components of the payload.

LuSEE-Night, which is a radio telescope, is designed to gather information about the Dark Ages of the universe. This time period, from about 380,000 to 400 million years ago after the Big Bang, occurred before the first luminous stars and galaxies. 

Connie-Rose Deane. Photo by David Rahner/ BNL

As the only signals measurable from the Dark Ages, radio waves, recorded through LuSEE-Night provide a chance to learn how the first non-luminous matter evolved into stars and galaxies.

Over the last several years, scientists at the Department of Energy and NASA have shared their excitement about seeing something they had never seen before.

David Rapetti, Senior Researcher with Universities Space Research Association (USRA) at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley, suggested the instrument was a “trailblazer for subsequent potential single telescope experiments for the global signal, also including the Cosmic Down signal at a somewhat higher frequency range.”

Rapetti, who has been with the project since its inception, suggested that this instrument could help with plenty of other science.

“In addition to studies of the sun, planets and exoplanets, the roadmap ahead for low frequency observations from the lunar surface represents a crucial resource to further our understanding of the evolution, content and first luminous objects of the early Universe,” Rapetti explained.

A potential measurement of the global Dark Ages signal could in principle reveal “undiscovered new physics or indeed further validate the current standard model of cosmology,” Rapetti added.

Challenging conditions

When looking for a landing site, the team searched for a flat, level surface that was free of large rocks and craters and that had an unobstructed view of the sky in all directions.

Anže Slosar. Photo by Roger Stoutenburgh/ BNL

They chose the Schrodinger Basin, which is about 250 miles south of the lunar equator at a point “almost exactly opposite the Earth-facing direction,” O’Connor explained. This will keep the telescope as “free as possible from electromagnetic interference from Earth,” he added.

Sending the telescope to the far side of the moon created particular challenges. For starters, the telescope had to endure the forces experienced during launch and landing. Once it was on the moon, it had to tolerate the harsh temperature that could drop as low as minus 280 degrees Fahrenheit, and radiation environment, while staying within the mass and power budgets. The instrument mass is less than 282 pounds.

While the landing site is ideal for minimizing electromagnetic noise, it’s difficult to send the information back to Earth with the moon blocking the communication.

Indeed, the ill-fated Apollo 13 mission, which was led by Commander James Lovell and that orbited the moon without landing, was out of communication for about 25 minutes while it was on the far side of the moon.

To gather data from the telescope, the group is sending a satellite that will orbit the moon, enabling communication that has a 1.3 second time delay in each direction as the signal travels to the moon.

The signal processing chain required a state-of-the-art digital chip that could crunch the data as it comes through small antennas and produces a reduced data set small enough to send back to Earth, explained O’Connor, who worked with a core BNL team of six senior scientists and engineers and about a dozen other engineers, technicians and project staff on a final design that took about 16 months to complete

Additionally, the telescope will only generate solar energy during 14 Earth days a month. During another 14 days, the instrument needs to run without recharging its battery.

To protect the telescope against the harsh, cold environment of the moon, the scientists are wrapping the instrument in many layers of an insulating blanket. The heat from its operation should provide enough energy to prevent damage from the cold.

When the radio telescope launches, the four antennas are coiled into a compact spool the size of a soda can. After landing, the latch is released, allowing the antenna to deploy into self-supporting booms three meters long using their own spring force. At this point, several research and development missions are underway to learn more about the moon in preparation for the Artemis 3 manned mission currently planned for the middle of 2027.

LSST/ Rubin Observatory

O’Connor has also been involved for over two decades with the development of a project called the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope that is now called the Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Cerro Pachón, Chile.

Rubin was an astronomer who provided the first evidence of the existence of dark matter.

The much anticipated activation of this observatory, which will allow researchers to look into billions of galaxies, asteroids and even dark matter, will start producing data in July.

O’Connor, who helped with the film part of the observatory’s camera, suggested that the BNL science team is “most interested in what LSST/ Rubin will tell us about the nature of dark energy and dark matter. This will come from analyzing the camera’s images which, paradoxically, reveal the location of dark matter as it ‘bends’ the light traveling towards us from distant regions in the universe.”

More information about the event on May 7 can be found here.

James Wishart at the Laser Electron Accelerator Facility. Photo by Roger Stoutenburgh/Brookhaven National Laboratory

By Daniel Dunaief

Leave a bicycle out in the rain for a few weeks and the metal gears and chain will develop rust that reduces the value and usefulness of that once shiny vehicle.

Now, imagine what the inside of a nuclear reactor looks like after high temperatures and ionizing radiation collide with everything they hit.

Chemists at Brookhaven National Laboratory, working with their partners at Idaho National Laboratory, recently showed how reactors cooled by molten salts had less corrosion in the reactor metals.

Molten salt cooled reactors are “intrinsically safe,” said James Wishart, Distinguished Chemist at BNL and director of the Molten Salts in Extreme Environments Energy Frontier Research Center. “They are already molten so they can’t melt down.”

The advantages of molten salt reactors are evident in their safety and their economics. These reactors are also better for the environment and for non proliferation of nuclear material. 

That is in contrast to what happened in 2011 after a tsunami hit the Fukushima nuclear plant in Japan, which had a meltdown at three of the plant’s reactors.

Fukushima lost the ability to cool the reactors because the tsunami knocked out the generators. A water reactor type meltdown can’t occur with a molten salt reactor because the fuel is already liquid and the reactor materials contain it in that state.

Chromium studies

In recent research published in the journal Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Wishart and his collaborators described the radiation-induced reactors of two ions of chromium, chromium 2+ and chromium 3+.

“Chromium is frequently the easiest metal to corrode from an alloy,” Wishart explained.

When chromium has a positive charge of three, it could be particularly problematic for the structural integrity and performance of the reactor. Chromium with a positive charge of two, on the other hand, may not be as problematic or corrosive to the nuclear reactor materials. Molten salts, which have negative ions of chlorine, can reduce chromium to the less reactive version.

By using the Laser Electron Accelerator Facility (LEAF) and the two-million electron volt Van de Graaff accelerator, Wishart tested the rate and temperature dependencies of reactions of the two chromium ions with reactive species generated by radiation in molten salt.

The solvated electrons and dichloride radicals, both of which have a negative charge, change the oxidation state of chromium to the less corrosive Cr 2+.

Commercial applications

Molten salt reactor research started in the late 1940’s.

In 1972, the Atomic Energy Commission expressed reservations about some technology issues and suggested that the engineering development of large components, a better understanding of the behavior of fission products and adequate remote inspection and maintenance techniques would be needed before molten salt reactors would be suitable for development.

The molten salt reactors were also not high enough on the development priority ranking of the government to have assurance of the required sustained resource allocation, according to an International Atomic Energy Agency Report on the Status of Molten Salt Reactor Technology.

Currently, however, at least a dozen companies are working on generators cooled by molten salts, with some involving chloride and others using fluoride.

Texas Abilene Christian University is building one such reactor, which would be the first university-based molten salt research reactor. The interest in these types of reactors has been growing around the world.

“We are providing information to help [people working in applied areas] understand the chemical transformations that molten salt fuel will undergo due to radiation inside the reactor,” said Wishart.

Several companies, including Thorcon Power and Seaborg Technologies, are also working on designs that can be built into modular forms and shipped by barge wherever power is needed.

In addition to reducing the threat from a melt down, these molten salt reactors also operate at relatively low vapor pressures, which is a “huge benefit in safety and in engineering,” Wishart added.

Molten salts have much lower vapor pressures than water because they are held together by very strong Coulombic forces, which come from the attraction of oppositely-charged ions.

Next studies

While the molten salt reactors favor the creation of a less problematic ionization state of chromium, they also produce other side reactions.

“With time and the large amount of radiation within the reactor, side reactions can lead to permanent products,” Wishart explained.

Studies of molten salt corrosion show a correlation between the presence and quantity of air and water and the rate of corrosion. Salts with low water and air contamination show little corrosion.

Wishart is now looking at more complex salt mixtures than the first series of experiments. Different cations, or positively charged ions, affect the reactivity of solvated electrons. He is investigating how that might divert the electron into side reactions that lead to the accumulation of permanent products.

Ground floor

Wishart was responsible for the construction of LEAF and for its operation for most of its 26-year history. When he and his colleagues were building the facility, he was eager to test out the facility’s ability to follow reactions on fast time scales, at about 10 picoseconds. A picosecond is such a small unit of time that an eye blink, which lasts about 0.1 seconds, is about 100 million picoseconds, so it records reactions rapid reactions.

Wishart was pleasantly surprised by all the scientific questions LEAF could address.

“I only started working on ionic liquids three years after LEAF was completed, so we could not anticipate how LEAF would enable that science to grow and then see it translate into molten salts,” he explained.

Wishart has published 76 papers on the radiation chemistry and/or physical chemistry since he started working on them in 2001.

Originally from the Detroit area, he returns periodically to spend time with family.

Wishart’s interest in chemistry began when he was a photographer for the high school yearbook, which, at the time, was printed in black and white. He made prints using traditional silver-based emulsions and was interested in the chemistry that caused the images to form under development.

When he was a PhD student at Stanford, Wishart mainly studied the chemistry of ruthenium, which is a second-row transition metal in the same family as iron. He found ruthenium satisfying to work with because scientists can watch the colors change to indicate when a reaction is done.

Mairead Carroll designed the most efficient bridge at this year's Bridge Building Competition. Photo by Kevin Coughlin/Brookhaven National Laboratory

And the results are in! Mairead Carroll, a senior from Northport High School, captured first place at the 2025 Bridge Building Competition hosted by the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton on March 14.

Students from 13 Long Island high schools followed a strict set of specifications to try to construct the most efficient model bridge out of lightweight basswood and glue.

The annual event shows high schoolers what it means to be an engineer in a fun, hands-on way and is one of many activities organized by Brookhaven Lab’s Office of Workforce Development and Science Education to cultivate the next generation of science, technology, engineering, and math professionals.

“Because many students spent the whole day at the Lab as a field trip, they were able to take some time to talk to our engineers and educational staff about their career journeys, making the experience about more than just building,” said Educational Programs Administrator Michele Darienzo. “Plus, we all had so much fun!”

Commack High School students Joshua Kim, left, Vincent D’Angelo, and Jordan Gleit earned three out of the four top spots awarded at the competition. Photo by Kevin Coughlin/Brookhaven National Laboratory

Carroll and second-place winner Vincent D’Angelo, a junior from Commack High School, qualify to bring their designs to the International Bridge Building Contest in Chicago, Illinois on April 26.

“Participating in the Brookhaven National Lab Bridge Competition was an incredible experience, and I’m so thankful for the opportunity to be part of it,” Carroll said. 

“It was a great chance to learn and grow as an aspiring civil engineer, and I’ve gained so much from the talented competitors I had the chance to meet. I’m excited to continue this journey and look forward to representing Northport at the International Bridge competition in Chicago,” she added.

Students and judges watched closely as Brookhaven Lab staff and volunteers tested 95 bridges under a crushing machine that slowly added more and more weight from above until the bridges broke or bent more than one inch. Bridges were ranked based on efficiency scores that are calculated from the load the bridge supports divided by the mass of the bridge — all in grams. The structures could not have a mass greater than 25 grams.

D’Angelo, who visited the Lab with classmates on competition day, said he focused on simplicity and keeping his bridge light. His fellow Commack High School students swept the contest’s remaining awards: junior Joshua Kim earned third place with a bridge that used trusses to maximize efficiency, and junior Jordan Gleit won an aesthetic award for bridge design thanks to a structure with lots of cross beams.

While bridge testing was underway, students toured the National Synchrotron Light Source II and Center for Functional Nanomaterials, two DOE Office of Science user facilities at Brookhaven with unique capabilities that draw scientists from all over the world to Long Island. Students met staff scientists and engineers and learned about the paths that led them to careers at BNL. 

Competitors further tested their engineering skills during an activity that challenged them to craft five increasingly difficult structures out of Geomag magnetic toys and earned Brookhaven Lab goodies if they were successful. Competition organizers also quizzed students with Brookhaven Lab and science trivia for chances to win more prizes.

Research associate Dr. Ejiro Umaka is pictured with BNL’s sPHENIX detectorEjiro Umaka at the sPHENIX. Photo by Kevin Coughlin/BNL

By Daniel Dunaief

Despite their importance in making a turkey sandwich, a clarinet, and an adorable puppy wagging its tail possible, quarks and gluons don’t figure into the realm of subjects discussed at water coolers, which, incidentally, also depend on the interaction between these subatomic particles.

Ejiro Umaka has the opportunity to change that, at least for a general audience including national legislators, in under three minutes while using only one slide.

A Research Associate at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Umaka won $2,000 at BNL’s second SLAM competition, in which she and nine other junior scientists presented their research in front of a live audience. Umaka planned to present her work this past Wednesday, March 5th to an audience of politicians, judges and people generally interested in science.

Rep. Nick LaLota (R-NY1) attended the previous event and extended his congratulations to Umaka.

“Dr. Umaka’s unwavering commitment to advancing scientific knowledge and her exceptional curiosity exemplify the pioneering spirit that positions Long Island at the forefront of research and technological development,” LaLota wrote in an email. “I am confident that [she] will represent Suffolk Count with distinction, and I eagerly anticipate her continued achievements.”

While the winner of the national competition will receive $4,000, the opportunity to compete and to describe her work for a general audience has already provided important experience for Umaka.

“I am honored to represent BNL,” Umaka explained in an email. “I am thrilled to discuss my work to a large audience without the usual scientific jargon, which has led to a deeper understanding of my work.”

During the SLAM competition, these scientists, whose competition will be live-streamed, use three minutes to inspire, captivate, and enlighten audiences whose decisions could affect future support and funding for important research projects.

In 2023, when Daniel Marx, Deputy Group Leader of the EIC Accelerator Design Group at BNL, traveled to Washington to represent BNL, he met several politicians from around the country, including Reps LaLota and Andrew Garbarino (R-NY2).

The politicians, many of whose districts, like LaLota’s included a national lab, were “certainly interested,” said Marx. He recalls speaking with Chuck Fleischmann (R-TN3), who served as Chairman of Energy and Water Appropriations.

Fleischmann, whose committee sets the budget for the Department of Energy and the national labs, was “very interested in having a conversation with us about the interplay between science and politics and how we can work together on that.”

Marx also enjoyed meeting with Bill Foster (D-IL14), who has a PhD in physics and has signs like “I love physics” in his office. “He has a really good grasp of what’s going on,” Marx recalled.

Foster asked penetrating and important questions about Marx’s work on developing the Electron Ion Collider.

Quarks, gluons and slowing down

Umaka is looking forward to representing BNL at the national competition and to sharing the science she does with a national audience.

Umaka works at the sPHENIX experiment, which is a radical makeover of the original PHENIX experiment. The experiment collects data at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, or RHIC.

The size of a two-story house with a weight of about 1,000 tons (or about five adult blue whales), the sPHENIX detector will capture snapshots of 15,000 particle collisions per second.

After the superconducting magnet at the core of the sPHENIX traveled across the country from the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in California to Brookhaven, it was installed in 2021. Umaka arrived at the lab before the sPHENIX was assembled.

“It’s not every time as a physicist or junior researcher that you start off with an experiment that is new,” said Umaka. 

The sPHENIX had to work out some early challenges. Initially, the experiment planned to use a mixture of gases in the time projection chamber that included neon. The war in Ukraine, however, created a shortage of neon, so the lab switched to a different gas and added isobutane. The group celebrated with an isobutane cake. Fortunately, the supermarket hadn’t run out of them.

Umaka explained in her winning talk that her experiments allow the team to explore the universe as it was millionths of a second after the Big Bang, when the primordial soup that contained quarks and gluons came together to create the world we know.

She compares the process at sPHENIX to having chicken soup in the form of the quark gluon plasma. The researchers then shoot small objects within a jet that are similar in scale to the other ingredients in the soup so they scatter off each other. From there, they can deduce the microscopic nature or point like structure of the plasma.

The role of sPHENIX is to record jets that come from the collision of nuclei that release quarks. 

“The jet shoots through the soup, and this is why we can use jets as a probe,” Umaka explained.

In the experiments, the soup exhibits collective behavior, which is similar to the response of a school of fish that turn in unison when disturbed. When the researchers look at the soup on the level of individual quarks and gluons, the particles should behave like molecules in a gas. 

By recording lots of collisions, sPHENIX increases the likelihood of finding and recording desirable jets useful for probing the soup at the level of individual quarks and gluons.

“We want to discover how the fluid-like (collective) nature of the soup emerges from fundamental interactions of quarks and gluons,” Umaka explained. 

Nigerian roots

Born in Nigeria, Umaka moved to Houston in her teens when her parents transferred to the United States. When she was younger, she wasn’t confident in her science aptitude. She took difficult courses in which the social structure worked against her advancement as a woman.

In Houston, she took a particle physics course. The professor suggested she’d do well in his group and that she’d get to go to Geneva to do research.

“Sign me up,” she recalled saying, and she did.

A resident of Brookhaven, Umaka enjoys visiting the mall, reading books, attending yoga classes, listening to music and talking with family.

As for the SLAM event, Umaka appreciates the way the competition has increased her visibility.

“If people like the talk, they will invite you to do other stuff, which is great,” she said.

——————————————

To watch Ejiro Ukama give her presentation at the National SLAM competition, click here and go to 1:48.

 

Students from Great Neck South Middle School, left, and Ward Melville High School during their final Science Bowl matches that secured their first-place wins. Photos by David Rahner and Kevin Coughlin/BNL
Both teams will compete for the National Science Bowl title in April

Bright minds from Great Neck South Middle School and Ward Melville High School won first place at regional middle and high school Science Bowls — fast-paced question-and-answer academic competitions — hosted by the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton on Jan. 30 and Jan. 31.

The Science Bowl tests students’ knowledge on a range of science disciplines including chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, astronomy, earth, and computer science.

The teams’ first place wins secured them an all-expense-paid trip to the National Science Bowl, where they’ll compete with students from around the country. The National Science Bowl is scheduled to take place from April 24 to April 28 near Washington, D.C. 

“The regional Science Bowl competition brings together some of the best and brightest STEM students from our region. We must inspire these students by highlighting career pathways and training opportunities, setting them on the path to become the next generation of STEM professionals,” said competition coordinator Amanda Horn, an educator with Brookhaven’s Workforce Development and Science Education Office. 

The winning teams also received a banner to hang in their schools, the top four teams received trophies, and the top three received medals. The first-place high school team won $500 and the second-place team won $250. All prizes and giveaways are courtesy of the event’s sponsors, Brookhaven Science Associates and Teachers Federal Credit Union.

Middle School Science Bowl Top Four

Great Neck South Middle’s first-place team, from left to right, Diane Caplain (coach), Zale Zhang, Nathan Li, Ryan Tsai, Leeann Lee, and Nathan Wong (coach). Photo by David Rahner/Brookhaven National Laboratory

The regional middle school Science Bowl on Jan. 30 was open to schools from Long Island and New York City.

Team members from Great Neck South Middle School spent hours the day before the middle school competition studying as much as they could, said student Ryan Tsai. Each team member specialized in a different subject.

“I would like to thank the math people for doing math,” said Tsai, who focused on chemistry questions.

Looking ahead to the National Science Bowl, captain Nathan Li added, “We’re looking forward to not getting last place and also just having a good time.”

First Place: Great Neck South MS (Team 1)

Second Place: Hunter College MS

Third Place: Paul J. Gelinas JHS

Fourth Place: R.C. Murphy JHS

High School Science Bowl Top Four

Ward Melville High School’s winning team, from left to right, Philip Medina (coach), Harry Gao, Anna Xing, Sean Skinner, Jason Yin, and Gunes Sunar. Photo by Kevin Coughlin/BNL

Ward Melville Senior High School is sending a team to the National Science Bowl for the third straight year.

To prepare for the regional high school competition on Jan. 31, the team studied even more than they did last year since two previous members graduated since then, said captain Sean Skinner. They also practiced how to buzz in to answer questions as fast as possible, he said.

“Most of us have read a textbook cover to cover in our main fields,” Skinner said, noting that each team member specialized in a subject or two. He added that he was happy with the teamwork Ward Melville showed. “Everyone was really positive and focused; that was awesome to see,” Skinner said. “I think my favorite thing is working together with other people to solve a problem that goes between both of your skills.”

First Place: Ward Melville Senior HS

Second Place: Great Neck South HS

Third Place: Roslyn High School

Fourth Place: General Douglas MacArthur Senior High School

Encouraging STEM participation

Science Bowl competitors learned about research happening at Brookhaven Lab straight from scientists, engineers, and postdoctoral researchers at the STEM Expo. (David Rahner/Brookhaven National Laboratory)

Both competitions kicked off with an introduction to Brookhaven Lab’s role as one of 17 DOE national laboratories and its unique facilities that aid researchers in making groundbreaking discoveries.  

Gary Olson, deputy site manager at the DOE-Brookhaven Site Office, encouraged students and their teachers to explore STEM training opportunities available through DOE programs.

“We need your minds. We need your inputs. We need your collaboration with your peers who are sitting next to you, in front of you and behind you to make those world-class discoveries, those scientific leaps of sorts, those transformational things, whatever they may be,” Olson said.

Students also heard from two early-career scientists at Brookhaven Lab about their areas of research.  

Amie Dobracki of the Environmental and Climate Sciences Department shared with middle schools why researchers study aerosols and their impacts, and how the tiny particles are key ingredients in the formation of clouds.

Success! These middle school students quickly cracked codes to unlock treats during the STEM Challenge. (David Rahner/Brookhaven National Laboratory)

Ejiro Umaka of the Physics Department explained how sPHENIX, one of two detectors that captures particle collisions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, a DOE Office of Science User facility for nuclear physics research at Brookhaven, helps scientists further understand the nature of matter in our early universe.

During a STEM Expo organized by the Lab’s Workforce Development and Science Education Office, students were the ones asking questions. Scientists from across the Lab’s disciplines offered demonstrations that revealed the basic principles of vacuum chambers, electron beams, software that operates instrumentation used to view materials at the nanoscale, and more.

Science Bowl competitors also toured the National Synchrotron Light Source II, a DOE Office of Science User facility at Brookhaven.

Teams that did not move on to the competition’s final double elimination rounds had the chance to further test their know-how at a STEM Challenge. They quickly put their minds together to solve puzzles that revealed codes to unlock boxes filled with treats. The teams with the fastest times won gift bags.

Middle school STEM Challenge results: First Place: New Hyde Park Memorial High School;  Second Place: Great Neck South Middle School (Team 2); Third Place: Plainedge Middle School

High school STEM Challenge results: First Place: Lindenhurst High School; Second Place: Long Beach High School; Third Place: Jericho High Schoo

Brookhaven National Laboratory is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, visit science.energy.gov.

 

Pixabay photo

By Daniel Dunaief

Small particles from the raging wildfires in Los Angeles that have killed residents, destroyed homes and businesses and have caused massive evacuations have crossed the country, reaching Long Island.

Arthur Sedlacek, III Aerosol Processes Group leader at Brookhaven National Laboratory

“Our instruments are picking up evidence detecting California wildfires already,” said Arthur Sedlacek, III, Aerosol Processes Group leader in the Environmental & Climate Sciences Department at Brookhaven National Laboratory. “What’s happening 3,000 miles away can impact us” just like the fires in Quebec did.

The amount and concentration of particles on Long Island from these particles doesn’t present a health risk to many people in the population.

“For those who are sensitive to inhalation irritation, it opens up the possibility” of developing breathing difficulties or adding particles that could irritate their lungs, Sedlacek continued.

To be sure, the majority of people on Long Island and the east coast may not react to levels of particulates that are considerably lower than for residents of Los Angeles and the surrounding areas.

Local doctors suggested that these particles can trigger a range of health problems for those who are closer to the flames and smoke.

“The general rule is the larger the exposure, the greater the effect,” said Dr. Norman Edelman, a  pulmonologist at Stony Brook Medicine. 

Researchers have shown that the exposure doesn’t have to be especially high to affect health.

‘We more we look, the more we see that lower and lower doses will have negative effects,” said Edelman.

If and when particulates build in the air where patients with lung challenges live, pulmonologists urge residents to take several steps to protect themselves.

First, they can adjust their medication to respond to a greater health threat.

In addition, they can wear a particle mask, which is not an ordinary surgical mask.

Over time, continued exposure to particulates through pollution, wildfires or other emissions may have a cumulative health effect.

Dr. Norman Edelman. Photo courtesy of SBU

In the South Bronx, about 40 percent of children have asthma, compared with closer to 10 percent for the rest of the country. While genetics may contribute to that level, “we believe it’s because they are exposed to intense, continuous air pollution from motor vehicle traffic,” said Edelman, as cars and trucks on the Cross Bronx Expressway pollute the air in nearby neighborhoods.

The cumulative effect on people with existing disease is more pronounced.

Even when exposure and a lung reaction end, people “don’t quite come back to where [they] started,” said Edelman. “They lose a little bit of lung function.”

Particulates not only can cause damage for people who have chronic lung issues, like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, but can also cause problems for people who have other medical challenges.

“We do know that this kind of pollution generates heart attacks in people with heart disease,” said Edelman. “That’s relatively new knowledge.”

A heating cycle

The ongoing fires, which started on Jan. 7 and were exacerbated by the Santa Ana winds of 70 miles per hour, have been consuming everything in their path, throwing a range of particles into the air.

These can include organic particles, black particles, which is akin to something that comes out of the tailpipe of a school bus and all sorts of particles in between, Sedlacek said.

These particles can form condensation nuclei for clouds and water droplets and they can absorb solar radiation and light.

Heating the upper troposphere with particles that absorb radiation alters the typical convention dynamic, in which hot air usually rises and cool air sinks

These changes in convection, which can occur with each of these major wildfires, can affect local air currents and even, in the longer term, broader air circulation patterns.

Sedlacek suggested that some areas in California and in the west may have reduced the use of controlled burns, in part because of the potential for those fires to blaze out of control.

“With the absence of range management and controlled burns to clear out the understory, you don’t have those natural fire breaks that would otherwise exist,” said Sedlacek. “In my opinion, you have to do controlled burns.”

Wildfires, Sedlacek added, are a “natural part of the ecosystem,” returning nutrients that might otherwise be inaccessible to the soil.

Without wildfires or controlled burns, areas can have a build up of understory that grows over the course of decades and that are potentially more dangerous amid a warming planet caused by climate change.

Indeed, recent reports from the Copernicus Climate Change Service indicate that 2024 was the hottest year on record, with temperatures reaching 1.6 degrees Celsius above the average in pre-industrial revolution levels. The Paris Climate Accord aimed to keep the increase from the late 19th century to well below 2 degrees, with an emphasis on a 1.5 degree limit.

The fires themselves have become a part of the climate change cycle, contributing particulates and greenhouse gases to processes that have made each of these events that much worse.

“These fires generate greenhouse gases and aerosol particles in the atmosphere that can then further increase or contribute to a warming of the globe,” said Sedlacek. “We have this positive feedback loop.”

In the climate change community, researchers discuss feedback, which can be positive, pushing an event or trend further in the same direction, or negative, which alters a process.

Sedlacek likens this to driving in a car that’s heading to the right towards the shoulder. In negative feedback, a driver steers the car in the other direction while positive feedback pushes the car further from the road.

Wildfires, which contribute and exacerbate global warming, can push the car towards a ditch, Sedlacek said.

Some scientists have urged efforts to engage in geoengineering, in which researchers propose blocking the sun, which would cause negative feedback.

“That might be a great idea on paper, but I don’t know if you want to play chemistry on a global scale,” said Sedlacek. Considering efforts to reduce solar radiation has merit, he suggested, but requires a closer analysis under controlled circumstances to understand it.

“I sincerely hope that the powers that be will appreciate the importance of what we do to understand” these processes, Sedlacek said. Understanding the models researchers have created can inform decisions.