Emily Krainer can hear the excitement in her father’s voice when she calls. After she gets off the phone, she tells her classmates about his work, which, one day, could influence their lives. Like Emily, they attend Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and, once they graduate, may use his work to help their patients.

The younger Krainer has “high hopes” for a promising new treatment her father developed for a potentially fatal disease.

Adrian Krainer, a professor and program chair of Cancer and Molecular Biology at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, has developed a drug for a pediatric neurological condition called spinal muscular atrophy, which is the leading genetic case of death among infants and affects about 1 in 6,000 newborns.

The drug, called an antisense oligonucleotide, is in phase III trials, which is the final stage before the Food and Drug Administration considers approving it.

SMA is a genetic disorder caused by a defective SMN1 gene. Patients with SMA rely on the SMN2 gene, which can produce normal survival of motor neuron protein but in low quantities because alternative splicing results in a shorter, unstable form of the protein.

Splicing is the process where important genetic information, exons, are joined together, while less important genetic parts, introns, are removed. The process starts with an RNA that is a copy of the gene, Krainer explained. For the SMN2 RNA, splicing leaves out the next to last exon. Krainer has found a way to encourage the splicing machinery to include exon 7 more efficiently.

These phase III trials involve two separate groups of patients. The first includes infants with type 1 SMA, which is the most severe version and has an average life expectancy of two years. Working with Isis Pharmaceuticals in California, doctors in these clinical trials will determine if the drug increases survival and reduces the need for ventilation.

In the second group, patients who are from two years of age up to 14 with type 2 SMA, which is an intermediate form of the disease, will receive the drug. Doctors will monitor improvements in neuromuscular function, Krainer said.

His Ph.D. advisor at Harvard, Tom Maniatis, praised his former student.

“This is beautiful and highly original work, which has already shown great promise for SMA therapy,” explained Maniatis, who is now chairman of the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics at Columbia University Medical Center.

While Krainer is awaiting results of these trials, he is making new discoveries that may also affect future treatments.

In mouse models of SMA, Krainer has found that injecting the drug under the skin was even more effective than inserting it directly into the spinal chord.

Additionally, neutralizing the drug in the central nervous system didn’t prevent its effectiveness. The drug enabled spinal chord motor neurons to continue to function, even when it wasn’t active in that area.

“Surprisingly, the effect of the drug given that way is still dramatic,” he said.

Krainer cautioned that results in mice may not display a similar pattern in humans.

Still, the mouse data suggest treatment with this drug might be more effective if administered beneath the skin.

If this drug becomes an accepted treatment for SMA, the approach of creating a synthetic antisense oligonucleotide could also become an effective weapon against other diseases, such as familial dysautonomi, in which a mutation causes a reduction in the expression of a protein.

“It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of all human disease causing mutations affect RNA splicing, so the tool [Krainer] has developed should have wide applications,” Maniatis suggested.

Maniatis has seen firsthand how Krainer has “a deep passion for science and a strong work ethic. More importantly, in my view, he has an incisive critical mind, which leads to the development of novel approaches and rigorous science.”

In addition to Emily, Krainer has two sons: Andrew, 22, who is in his last semester at CUNY-Baruch College, and Brian, 20, who is a junior at Carnegie-Mellon.

When she was young, Emily Krainer said she met children with SMA at conferences. These interactions “shaped my interest.”

Emily said her father is a role model and “hopes whatever I do in the future, I enjoy as much as he enjoys his work.”

As for the drug trials, the younger Krainer said her fellow future doctors want to know how this treatment works. She said her classmates hope he is “going to change the lives of so many patients.”

In winters like this one, most people focus on the weather for the day or week. That’s not the case for Minghua Zhang, who is much less concerned about whether to buy more salt for the next snowstorm than he is about global changes in the weather over the last 100 years.

The dean of the School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at Stony Brook University, Zhang studies weather around the globe, exploring changes in temperature, precipitation, clouds, convection and atmospheric and oceanic circulations.

Working with a team of scientists from Britain, Switzerland and Germany, Zhang recently discovered that the industrial revolution has had severe consequences in the northern tropics in the Atlantic.

Zhang, who worked with graduate student Tingyin Xiao on the study, said precipitation in that area decreased by 10 percent in the last 100 years. This decrease could have implications for farming in Central America, experts said.

“These findings may help to reveal shifts in seasonal rainfall in Central America, which is critical for agriculture in the area and may, therefore, have potential impacts on agricultural and environmental policies in the region,” wrote Provost Dennis Assanis in response to emailed questions.

Zhang said sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere moderated temperatures in the northern hemisphere by reflecting radiation from the sun. This shifted the intertropical convergence zone, which is a tropical rainfall belt near the equator, toward the southern hemisphere.

Led by Harriet Ridley from the Department of Earth Sciences at Durham University in the United Kingdom, the scientists published their work in the journal Nature Geoscience.

Zhang addressed the challenge of predicting or understanding global patterns even as computer models, which are at the center of predicting and understanding weather, raised alarms in New York City for a record-breaking blizzard that never came.

“The fluid system is chaotic,” he suggested, “which prevents a deterministic prediction with long lead time.”

The predictive ability of the model for approaching storms are limited by the computing power to resolve key processes, the lack of understanding of turbulence and condensed water processes, such as ice crystal aggregation and the lack of sufficient data in remote areas, such as over the ocean.

“In the short term, the weather is chaotic and there is a limit” to how well these models predict the movement of approaching storms, he said.

More broadly, Zhang, whose research contributed to the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 headlined by former Vice President Al Gore, said his research goal is to improve global climate models.

“We have uncertainties in the models, especially those related to clouds,” Zhang said.

Indeed, despite advances in technology, computers are still not powerful enough to resolve large cloud systems, he said. The current fastest computer in the United States can do about 27,000 trillion calculations per second, he said, which is the equivalent of the speed of about one million desktop PCs. That only resolves the climate in units that are about 25 kilometers apart.

Zhang said the scientific understanding of liquid clouds is much better than before, but the knowledge of ice clouds in a turbulent environment is “still not sufficient.”

When he’s not conducting research, Zhang oversees a school that has 120 faculty and staff, with about 150 graduate students and 350 undergraduates.

While the Ph.D. program is ranked sixth in the category of marine and atmospheric sciences by the National Research Council, Zhang wants to continue to move up the ladder. He also wants to improve the teaching at Stony Brook and has put the syllabus for all the courses on the website and  urges all faculty to be involved in advising undergraduate students.

Zhang has established a faculty mentoring program that allows junior faculty to receive tips from senior faculty.

Zhang “has helped to grow the school” of faculty that are “working together to better understand how our marine, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments function and are related to one another,” Assanis explained in an email. “The current expertise [at the school] places them in the forefront in addressing and answering questions about immediate regional problems, as well as long-term problems relating to the global oceans and atmosphere.”

Zhang and his wife Ying live in East Setauket, where they raised their daughters Grace, who is studying art at Brown University, and Harley, who works for the Singapore branch of a consulting firm based in New York.
Born and raised in China, Zhang said that, in his rare free time, he enjoys visiting the beaches through all the seasons.

As for his work, Zhang finds his role as the dean of the school and as a researcher rewarding. In his research, he focuses on “improving the mathematical formulas that go into the models.”

Looking through binoculars from the bleachers at a baseball game, at an eagle as it alights on a distant tree or at a constellation in a cloudless night are all much easier with a clear lens. A smudge, crack or even a hair on the lens can make that long-distance gazing considerably more challenging, as the images become blurry and our eyes struggle to interpret the difference between what’s out there and the defect in our binoculars.

The same holds true for radiation detectors. Constructed with bars of crystals, the detectors have applications in everything from medical imaging to see tumors to peering deep into the universe for signature radiation signals to detecting the movement of nuclear materials to help prevent an attack or accident.

A significant challenge with these detectors has been the defects that appear as the crystal grows. Scientists work on two fronts to deal with these imperfections: They improve the quality of the crystals, and they develop ways to compensate for the imperfections.

At Brookhaven National Laboratory, physicist Aleksey Bolotnikov has made significant contributions to improving detector performance despite the flaws in the crystal.

“We veto the interactions in the ‘bad’ regions of the crystals,” Bolotnikov explained.

Working with a team of scientists at BNL, including Giuseppe Camarda, Utpal Roy, Anwar Hossain and Ge Yang, Bolotnikov has been able to measure the coordinates of these defects with high accuracy. This allows the researchers to improve the detecting capability and reduce the cost by increasing the acceptance rates of the crystals.

Recently, Bolotnikov authored a paper in Applied Physics Letters in which he increased the size and thickness of the crystals. The thicker crystals are important in detecting weak sources.

Bolotnikov has “been able to establish new records for the thickness of semiconductor gamma-ray detectors operating at room temperature,” offered Ralph James, who heads Bolotnikov’s department and has collaborated with him ever since he arrived 20 years ago. “This is a critical step in the move to replace many traditional radiation-sensing instruments used today.”

The biggest market for these detectors with thicker crystals is in nuclear medical instruments for oncology and cardiology, James said.

Bolotnikov explained that the team at BNL combines researchers with expertise in a range of areas. Roy grows the crystals, while a group from the instrumentation division led by Gianluigi De Geronimo facilitates the work as a “top expert in readout electronics.” By tapping into his expertise in nuclear physics and nuclear engineering, Bolotnikov is  also able to design and develop new detectors.

James credits his colleague with significant advances in detector technology. “His new position-sensitive device design has rendered outstanding results that have approached the theoretical limits for energy resolution,” James said.

The work of Bolotnikov and the team has earned them national recognition. Bolotnikov was a part of three R&D Magazine’s R&D 100 Awards, in 2006, 2009 and 2014.

Last fall, he received the Room Temperature Semiconductor Detector Scientist Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The award recognized a scientist who had done the most to impact room temperature semiconductor detectors and could be given either for a lifetime of work or for a single accomplishment.

The award is “well earned,” James said. Bolotnikov’s votes among the awards committee “surpassed others by far.”

Like other members of his team, James said Bolotnikov works most waking hours. “I can count on a quick response from him via emails during the evenings,” James said.

Born in a small city near Moscow, Bolotnikov first came to Long Island around 1991. He now lives in Setauket with his wife Mila, who is a teacher for North Shore Montessori. His daughter Dasha works at BlackRock, while his son Vassili works for a small management company affiliated with Stony Brook Hospital.

Bolotnikov, who said he enjoys his work, suggested that the effort to improve technology generates new ideas, which “creates the new background or basis for writing proposals for the next cycle of work.”

Bolotnikov continues to work on increasing the size of the crystals in the detectors. At some point, the larger sizes can become prohibitively expensive. An alternative, he suggested, is to use gamma-ray focusing optics, concentrating gamma rays coming from large areas toward a reasonably sized detector. “This, he said, “is a new horizon.”

If imitation is the highest form of flattery, there should be plenty of blushing moths. A group of scientists is working on a new way to create a structure similar to the moth eye, albeit with several important differences, to build a better solar cell.

Unlike human eyes, the compound moth’s eyes have a collection of miniature posts across their surface.

These posts allow the moth to absorb a wide range of light without reflecting it back. This prevents the “moth in the headlights” appearance, enabling the insect to blend in without sending a reflection predators might notice.

While Lord Rayleigh worked out the mathematics for why the moth eye geometry eliminates reflection in the 1800s, a team at Brookhaven National Laboratory has come up with a new approach to creating an anti-reflective silicon.

“Our advance is in coming up with a tricky new way” to make a silicon surface that absorbs instead of reflects light, said Chuck Black, a scientist and group leader at the Center for Functional Nanomaterials at BNL. “We think it has practical advantages in applying this” to things like solar cells or even, some day, anti-reflective windshields on cars or windows in buildings.

Companies have been using multilayer coatings to increase the ability of silicon solar cells to absorb light. By etching a nanoscale texture onto the material, researchers including Black and Atikur Rahman, a postdoctoral researcher, were able to create an anti-reflective surface that works as well as multilayer coatings, while outperforming single antireflective film by about 20 percent.

The researchers coated the top of a silicon solar cell with a substance Black has worked with for more than 15 years, called a block copolymer. The advantage to this substance is that it can self-organize into a surface pattern with dimensions of only about 10 nanometers. This pattern enabled the development of posts that are similar to those of a moth’s eyes, even though the features in their structures are much smaller than those in the insect eye.

The challenge in trying to reduce reflections is that sunlight has a wide range of colors at different wavelengths. Substances designed to absorb one color won’t be as effective at capturing a different one.

That’s where the moth enters the picture.

“Nature has learned how to create this anti-reflection,” by using spikes, Black said. “This promotes anti-reflection not just in one but in all wavelengths of light.”

The way this works is somewhat akin to the proverbial frog in a pot of water. In the frog story, a frog sitting in a pot of water that slowly heats up doesn’t jump out of the water even when it’s boiling because it’s adjusted to the changing temperature. Similarly, these spikes draw light of different wavelengths in because the distances between them are all smaller than the wavelength of light. The light effectively reacts to their average properties, Black explained.

When the light travels through these spikes, which are not cylindrical but, rather are thinner at the top and flair at the bottom, it reacts as if it hits something that is a combination of something small and insignificant and air. As the light travels towards the silicon surface, it interacts less with air and more with the spike, where it becomes absorbed by the thicker base before it can reflect back out.

“You’re softening this transition between air and whatever you’re trying to couple the light into,” Black said. Instead of a sharp boundary between the air the light is traveling through and the surface, the spikes ease that interaction, gradually capturing the light.

To demonstrate its effect, Black held a small photograph of his lab above a reflecting surface in which a small square is coated with the anti-reflective material. In the reflection, the square with the anti-reflective substance appears black.

Black and Rahman, who was the lead author on the study, published their results in Nature Communications. They don’t know whether this approach is more economical or efficient than the current multilayer coating for solar cells. They are working with external partners to understand the economic or performance advantages of this approach, he said.

Black and his wife Theresa Lu, who is a physician scientist at the Hospital for Special Surgery, live in Manhattan with their two primary school children, Marina and Charlotte.

As for his work, Black and Rahman filed a patent for this technology last year. “It’s something we’re very proud of,” he said.

In the blistering heat of the summer, when the three H’s — hazy, hot and humid — dominate the weather forecast, people gravitate toward the refreshing stream of comfort from an air conditioner. Similarly, when a polar vortex descends, people seek the warmth from a heater to help unfurl frozen fingers.

Ya Wang, an assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Stony Brook University, is working on a type of vent that will direct the soothing air toward people wherever they are, whether they’re cozying up on a couch, dropping down at a desk, or resting in a recliner.

Teaming up with professor Lei He and professor Qibing Pei at the University of California, Los Angeles, Wang and her partners recently received a $2 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy for a proposal that will make the vents for these air conditioners and heaters more efficient, lowering the cost to heat or cool a room.

Wang and her collaborators are developing a vent that will enable the air conditioner or heater to work less hard at changing the temperature in the parts of a room where a filing cabinet, a ficus tree, or a fireplace is, targeting the soothing air at the room’s occupants.

The new vent could generate 30 percent savings through such directed flow, SBU estimates. “We can regulate the airflow velocity by a special design and adjust the temperature to whatever is needed,” Wang said. “This will adjust automatically to regulate the airflow velocity back to the occupant.”

Wang is the principal investigator on the project, which means she collaborated on the idea and put it together.

Unlike academic funds, which require researchers to conduct experiments and produce data, this grant was awarded to produce a product.

Aside from coordinating the effort, Wang will also focus on developing the harvesters, which will provide a power supply for the on-board sensors and actuators. Wang and her collaborators estimate a cost of less than $20 per unit, with a $60 per year per unit electricity savings.

Jeff Ge, chairman of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at SBU, said Wang is one of six new faculty members hired in the past two years. He said she received positive reviews for her research and teamwork.

“The work of Dr. Wang and her colleagues to enhance energy efficiency is one of the most important research endeavors for our state and society,” Samuel Stanley, president of SBU, said in a statement.

Apart from her work on the new vent, Wang spends about a quarter of her time teaching, 65 percent of her time on academic research, advising graduate and undergraduate students, and about 10 percent of her time in community service. She participates in a seminar for women in science and engineering, and encourages women to enter these fields.

She is working through other grants on energy-related research. With the U.S. Department of Transportation, she is developing ways to tap into the vibrational energy from subway trains and from the wind these cars generate to power sensors that monitor the track. As it stands, the DOT sends people to the tracks to make sure they are functioning correctly. By reusing other forms of energy, the department can create a more extensive monitoring system that won’t involve as many potentially hazardous trips onto the tracks for transit workers.

Wang said soldiers in the field often carry a few hundred tons of batteries to power electronics and communication systems. She is working with the U.S. Navy to generate power by walking or running. To be sure, that won’t provide all the necessary energy, but it can supply some of the power for electronics or communications.

A Smithtown resident, Wang woke up one night to the sounds of her smoke alarm battery indicating it needed replacing.

She’s working on a circuit that will use vibrational energy for the detector. She has a one-year old nephew and sees an opportunity to create batteries that tap into vibrational energy or the temperature difference between a toy and the air to provide power.

With all her interests in energy for commercial applications, Wang would be a compelling candidate to work in industry. Why, then, did she choose to come to SBU, an academic home where she’s worked for 18 months?

“My dream, since I was a kid,” in Shandong Province in China, was “to be a teacher,” she said. “I enjoy working with new students.”

The solar panels on his house in Dix Hills help provide about a third of the energy he and his family use. When he drives around Long Island and sees plumes of smoke from power plants, he looks to see where it’s heading.

Energy and environmental conservation aren’t just hobbies or personal philosophies ­— they are part of what Vasilis Fthenakis teaches as a senior scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory and an adjunct professor at Columbia University.

Fthenakis helped improve the environmental impact of solar cells, working several years ago to eliminate lead, which can be dangerous to humans and to the environment, from the manufacture of solar panels. He has helped guide the industry to minimize the environmental, health and safety risks of solar cells.

Fthenakis recently returned from a trip to Chile, where he is encouraging the use of solar panels in a country that is often bathed in sunlight. “It’s the best place in the world for solar,” he said. It rarely rains and most of the land that is available for installation is up on high altitudes, he said.

Fthenakis, who was born and raised in Greece, has worked for about a year with several Chilean organizations to discuss the benefits and realities of solar energy.

Chile now imports coal, natural gas and diesel fuel. If the country produced its own energy, it could cut its energy costs, he said. It could take up to five years to see significant effects on the national economy, he estimated.

The South American nation has been ramping up its solar efforts. A few years ago, Chile generated no power from sunlight. That rose to 10 megawatts in 2012, 189 megawatts in August last year and currently stands at about 500 megawatts.

“We’re talking about tremendous growth,” Fthenakis said. Chile has a plan to boost renewable energy, which includes solar, wind and some hydroelectric plants, to 12 percent by 2020 and 20 percent by 2025. Fthenakis believes solar will be the biggest constituent in the mix.

While Chile doesn’t have the same oil, gas, coal and nuclear lobbies as the United States does, it does present some challenges to boosting solar energy, including inertia, Fthenakis said. “Most people don’t want to change,” he added, including people in other countries around the world.

In 2008, Fthenakis and two other authors wrote a cover story for Scientific American, titled “A Solar Grand Plan,” about the benefits and reliability of solar energy. At the time, solar was contributing 0.1 percent of energy to the capacity in the U.S. That number has climbed to 2 percent.

The article was translated into 11 languages and has raised his profile around the world. He has also traveled to Abu Dhabi to discuss the feasibility of tapping into the sun-driven renewable resource. As with Chile, these interactions have developed through a combination of approaches from other countries and an interest on Fthenakis’ part.

In addition to his work at BNL, Fthenakis teaches two environmental courses at Columbia: Air Pollution Prevention and Control, and Photovoltaics Systems Engineering and Sustainability.

As for his research at BNL, Fthenakis said he is involved in all aspects and impacts in evaluating energy alternatives. That can include affordability, which addresses direct and hidden costs, resource availability and environmental impact.

Fthenakis has been working at BNL for 34 years, where he has earned the respect of his colleagues. He is “a world-renowned expert in issues of safety of photovoltaic systems and, more broadly, in issues of deployment, efficiency, practicality and the like,” said Stephen Schwartz, a senior scientist in the Biological, Environmental & Climate Sciences Department at BNL, who has known Fthenakis for about 20 years.

Fthenakis’ wife, Christina, is an executive director in research and development at Estée Lauder Companies. The couple have a daughter, Antonia, who is doing her residency in dermatology at Stony Brook and a 21-year-old son Michael who is exploring his career options.

Fthenakis said he and his family visit beaches on Long Island or wherever they travel. When they find litter, they help dispose of it in a safe place.

“Solar energy and the environment defines the way I live,” Fthenakis said.

They help start car engines, provide light in the darkness, keep music playing as joggers circumnavigate their towns, and help send signals to hearts that might otherwise have irregular beats. They are, of course, batteries.

The fact that they work is something everyone understands as soon as they flip a switch. What no one can see completely yet, though, is what happens on a small scale as a battery discharges.

Mostly encased in stainless steel, the inner workings of a battery have been difficult to measure directly. A much-heralded hire from two years ago, who divides her time between Stony Brook and Brookhaven National Laboratory, Esther Takeuchi has teamed up with several other scientists to gather new clues about the changes in a battery as it discharges.

“We’re looking at the internal anatomy of a battery without taking it apart,” said Takeuchi, a distinguished professor with an appointment in the department of chemistry and the department of materials Science and engineering at Stony Brook and a chief scientist at BNL’s Basic Energy Sciences Directorate.

Takeuchi and her team worked at BNL’s National Synchrotron Light Source, where they stopped batteries at various times and measured them with the kind of x-rays that penetrate the steel casing. These provide a resolution on the scale of 20 microns, which is about 1/4 the width of a human hair.

By understanding on a more precise level what happens inside a battery, scientists may provide insight that enables a greater understanding of the best architecture or design for a battery.

“The way we understand a battery could change dramatically,” said study co-author Amy Marschilok, a research associate professor in materials science and engineering at Stony Brook. “We’re taking” the inner workings of a battery “from black box science to more [open] science, where we can see and understand what’s happening. We’re on the verge of that type of discovery right now.”

In general, Takeuchi said batteries may work at about 80 percent efficiency, depending on the type of battery or its use. That, she said, could increase with a design that makes best use of the developing environment in the battery as it functions.

The results of the study, which included Takeuchi’s husband Kenneth, who is a distinguished teaching professor at Stony Brook, Marschilok, BNL scientist Zhong Zhong, BNL postdoc Kevin Kirshenbaum and Stony Brook graduate student David Bock, were published in the prestigious journal Science.

The research team used these bright x-ray beams to study lithium batteries that have a special silver material at the cathode, the place from which current departs, that has high stability, high voltage and spontaneous matrix formation.

As the batteries, which Bock created, discharge, lithium ions from the anode travel to the cathode, displacing silver ions in the process. Coupling with free electrons and unused cathode material, the displaced silver forms a conductive silver metal matrix that enables electrons to flow.

The research demonstrated that a slow discharge rate early in the battery’s life creates a more uniform network.

“When we started activating the battery, the cathode spontaneously, within its own structure, starts forming small parts, or ions, of silver metal,” Takeuchi said. “The silver ions are reduced to silver metal. What’s really interesting is that, because we’re forming silver metal, we have something we can measure.”

The results of the experiment provided a clearer understanding of the steps the battery goes through. The last part of the battery to activate is the center.

In some batteries, the flow of electrons may just reach the edges and never have access to the middle.

Takeuchi, who left the University at Buffalo to come to Long Island, said she is excited by the opportunities at Stony Brook and BNL. This past June, Stony Brook led a multi-institution group that received a $10 million Energy Frontier Research Center Award from the Department of Energy.

Takeuchi is convinced she made the right decision to move to Long Island.

“The willingness of Stony Brook and BNL to commit to this field was appealing to me,” Takeuchi said. “They recognize how important it is, to Long Island, nationally, and globally. We have the opportunity to make a difference.”